Invention of television

According to Osborne (2010), Paul Nipkow, a German was the first person to transmit pictures over wires. He used the scanning principle developed by a rotating disc technology in 1884. The Nipkow’s scanning floppy thought was developed by John Logie Baird in the 1920’s, which led to development in electronics. He patented the idea of using arrays of transparent rods for television images transmission.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Invention of television specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In 1923, Charles Francis had helped in transmission of mobile images (silhouette) – this used a system of mechanical television. Vladimir Zworykin (Russian) improved his own cathode ray tube in 1929. In 1948, multiple contributions were made by Louis Parker, who developed the idea of the modern Television. Later major inventions were made on color television and cable television (1953), remote controls (1956 ), plasma televisions (1964), and web television (1996). According to Street (2006), Paul Nipkow developed the Nipkow disc in 1884, which was capable of transmitting pictures by use of a cable. More innovations were made in 1920’s. By then, John Baird used a collection of clear bars for delivering images, and they were protected by law. He had started his studies in 1924 and in 1927 – the first complete electronic television was designed by Philo Farnsworth. Werner Flechsig in 1938 patented a modern signal analog color television. Dumont Company in 1939 became the first company to start manufacturing television sets and became the first television network in 1946. In addition, Goldmark delivered a color Television in the same year – this television could deliver images in blue, red, and green colors, by help of a cathode ray pipe. The development of the television set is quite a complex series of events, and saying that one particular man may have invented the t elevision is an overstatement since many contributed and improved on the works and inventions made in earlier times. In Ingram (2006), the media have come through a lot of changes.Advertising Looking for essay on other technology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More From the times of 15th Century when Johann Gutenberg rediscovered printing work in Europe to today when internet is the new and biggest source of information. The media have transformed in a big way since then, a couple can receive messages at the comfort of their living rooms from the times when messages were sent because of emergencies to a time when messages are easy to send. In the earlier times, it was hard to send a message for its expense of time. A letter sent across the Atlantic Ocean took ages to sail across just because there was no other means for transportation. The recent transformations have allowed easier ways of dissemination of information. References Briggs, A Burke, P 2010, A Social History of the Media: From Gutenberg to the Internet, 3rd edn, Polity Press, Cambridge. Bull, S 2009, ‘Photography’ in D. Albertazzi and P. Cobley (eds) The Media: An Introduction, 3rd edn, Pearson, Harlow. Cobley, P 2001, Narrative, Routledge, London. Duck,S McMahan, DT 2008, The Basics of Communication: A Relational Perspective Authors, Sage, New York.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Invention of television specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Ingram, A 2006, An Advertiser’s Guide to Better Radio Advertising Tune In to the Power of The Brand Conversation Medium, John Wiley Sons, Chichester. Kraeuter, DW 1993, British radio and television pioneers: a patent bibliography, Scarecrow Press, Metuchen. Lewis, PM Booth, J 1990, The invisible medium: public, commercial, and community Radio. Howard University Press, Washington, D.C. Locket, M Patterson, A 2007, Ra dio man: Marconi Sahib, Universe, New York. Osborne, J 2010, Radio head: up and down the dial of British radio. Pocket, London. Pocock, RF 1988, The early British radio industry, Manchester Univ. Press, Manchester. Street, S 2006, Historical dictionary of British radio, Scarecrow Press, Lanham.Advertising Looking for essay on other technology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Wells, A 1997, Mass media society, Ablex Publ, Greenwich. Wimmer, RD Dominick, JR 2011, Mass media research: an introduction. Mass, Cengage- Wadsworth, Boston. This essay on Invention of television was written and submitted by user Jerome D. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Organic vs. Inorganic Food Essay Sample

Organic vs. Inorganic Food Essay Sample Organic vs. Inorganic Food Analysis Essay Organic vs. Inorganic Food Analysis Essay Organic food is the food that has been produced according to the standards designed to maintain natural production. In that way, fewer if any compounds of chemicals are used in the pesticides. Moreover, when chemicals are used in organic food, this is cautiously controlled. Genetically modified organisms have been the topic of heated debate for quite a long time. The opponent scientists argue against the rapidly growing trend inclined towards an almost total shift from the use of organic to genetically modified products. Proponents conversely argue for the benefits of an increased production of genetically modified foods claiming that genetically modified foods ease the burden of costly food production especially in poor countries. Though there have been unjustified speculations on the negative effects of GMO foods, the increased amount of food to feed the growing population is an evident benefit. Opponents base their arguments on the possibility of potential harm resulting from the consumption of genetically modified foods. Among these unproven claims are the ones saying that GM foods contribute to the increase in allergies, make the body resistant to antibiotics, and are possible causes of cancerous cells replication. GMO Food Should Be Extended This essay will take a some-say approach in order to discuss whether organic food has more value than conventional food, but the fact would be that organic foods are better than non-organic foods. The World Bank presented a research on the Agricultural Department in 2009 to assess the amount of income that was used on food in most countries. The report generated surprising results classifying the poorest countries as the highest users of their household income on food. Countries like the US, which have embraced the use of GMOs, were rated among the least users of household income on food. The American government has allowed the growth of GMO crops, and this is what has constantly saved the incomes of its citizens from being largely used up for the purchase of foods. GMO foods are resistant to pests and harsh climatic conditions; they also take a short time to grow, thus reducing food shortage and providing affordable foods. Poor countries should look beyond the unjustified claims about the negative effects of GMOs and focus on generating a dependable source of food to improve their economy. Genetically modified foods are likely to attract the attention of many people for a long period. Various people in different fields are trying to argue out the pros and cons of consuming GMO foods and growing genetically modified crops, but the decision to consume them or not lies in the hands of each individual. Food production for the growing world population is already a problem. With the current changes in climate, this problem is likely to become worse since the increased temperatures coupled with excessive rain will result in increased infestation of pests and diseases. These will, in turn, affect farmers whose yields will go down and the issue of world hunger will continue (Freedman, 2013). The use of genetically modified organisms will undoubtedly assist in solving the hunger problem. Plant scientists are able to match dominant genes in crops to create new varieties of crops that can adapt to the changing climate. This is an advantage that favors poor countries as a result of the large supply of food generated. Genetically engineered crops are able to resist multiple diseases and droughts thus ensuring that in the event of a dry spell, there will still be a reliable source of food (Freedman, 2013). The use of genetically engineered organisms has greatly assisted the farmers especially in the developed countries that have accepted GM crops. GM crops use less pesticide as compared to organic crops thus saving the farmers a lot of money and increasing the yield by enabling them to have a sufficient means of survival. GMO foods are also seen as more advantageous than organic foods since they stay fresh for a longer period and have better taste with added nutritional value (Jeffrey, 2012). Proponent plant scientists are encouraging the world to embrace genetically modified foods, because by doing so, the production of food will greatly increase, therefore the price of foods will go down and the number of people affected by hunger problems will reduce. GMO foods have many advantages that make them a better choice as compared to organic foods. Since pests are one of the greatest sources of losses to farmers, most farmers tend to use lots of pesticides which are undoubtedly hazardous to the environment, in order to protect their crops from the pests. GMO foods are pest resistant; therefore, they do not pose a threat to the environment. They are also safer for the consumers since they do not contain harmful chemicals absorbed from pesticides. Genetically engineered foods are also disease resistant and thus better than vulnerable organic crops since they are not affected by viruses and bacteria which cause many financial losses to farmers. GMO foods have high nutritional benefits. Plant scientists are able to genetically modify organic crops creating stronger crops that have more nutrients than the original ones. This is especially useful in places where the populations rely on one type of food. Such crops may be genetically engineered to allow consumers to try added nutrients and bring down the cases of malnutrition especially in the developing countries. Most GMO foods are developed to stand powerful herbicides, thus are not affected by the harsh chemicals in herbicides. This saves farmers money, which can be used on other needs. In places where cold weather is an issue, crops may be adversely affected by frost which harms young seedlings (Ruppert Henson, 1998). To solve this problem, plant scientists introduced an anti freezing gene which enables GM plants to survive in cold areas. This is good for farmers who live in cold places since they are able to earn a living by growing cold resistant crops. GMO foods are th erefore very advantageous to the world and should be developed rather than prohibited (Whitman, 2000). GMO foods are much cheaper than organic foods. When farmers choose to grow organic foods, they have to deal with problems such as pests, which, in most cases, cause farmers great financial losses by the destruction of produce. Farmers also have to deal with diseases such as potato blight, which affects even future seasons as some remain resistant to herbicides. Such farmers, like potato farmers, are forced to maintain strong herbicides in an attempt to avoid blight on their produce, which is very costly (Rotman, 2013). The world is still facing hunger problems which proponent scientists have attempted to solve through genetic engineering of foods. With the current unpredictable climate, the growth of organic foods proves to be difficult and expensive; therefore, even the actual food produced is very expensive and unavailable to a bigger percentage of the world’s population. Since GMO foods are engineered to withstand the current climate changes that have been attributed to glo bal warming, they will prove to be cheaper to grow purchase. This, therefore, proves their affordability even to people living in poor countries that are more dependent on high-cost organic foods (Connealy, 2013). People who have not yet embraced GMOs do not need to worry too much about safety since scientists have worked tirelessly ensuring that safety standards are met. GMOs are engineered to have better taste, faster growth, high resistance to pests, diseases, and harsh climate; thus they depict positive attributes as compared to organic crops. Where there is a high demand for crops, genetically modified foods are in higher supply and are hence cheaper than organic foods, which take a longer time to grow and remain fresh for a short span These negative attributes of organic crops make them expensive, more perishable, and vulnerable to harsh conditions as compared to genetically modified crops. The ability of plant scientists to transfer genes from different plants enables the organisms to have many desirable traits whereas the organic foods retain both desirable and undesirable traits making genetically modified foods more appealing and reliable both to consumers and farmers (Jeffrey, 2012) . Another advantage of GMO foods is that they help in conserving soil since there is reduced tilling as they require less weeding and cultivation. The use of genetic engineering ensures high levels of production and reduced effort and expenses. When comparing them to organic foods, their advantages greatly outnumber those of organic foods. Growing genetically modified foods saves on capital which may be used to boost the economy especially in the developing countries. The money saved by farmers on purchasing pesticides and other chemicals may be used for their own development in line with non-household products. The Value of Organic Food Some say that organic food is not healthier than conventional produce. Stanford University professional doctors went ahead to determine the value of organic food and found out that there is little evidence that eating organic food can be much healthier than conventional one (Azadi Ho, 2010). Some say that the use of conventional food can indeed lower the exposure to pesticides. However, research has proven that conventional food can do that only within the safety limits. That is to mean that eating organic food including fruits and vegetables has more value than conventional food, because it decreases the exposure to pesticides above safety levels. There are many reasons that lead people to choosing organic foods over conventional foods. These reasons range from environmental concerns to taste preferences. However, supporters of conventional food state that when it comes to individual health, there is not much diversity (Crinnion, 2010). It can be argued that organic foods carry high levels of vitamin C as well as proteins. Therefore, it remains the fact that those people that consume organic foods have a higher advantage of lower risk exposure than those taking conventional foods. Some also state that organic food offers only a little edge towards food safety having 30% of pesticide remains as compared to non-organic foods. However, the fact remains that organic foods are better than conventional ones since they are safe to feed on. Most importantly, both fruits and vegetables that are grown in the absence of chemical fertilizers as well as pesticides are safer than the conventional foods. Moreover, livestock that has been raised using organic practices are not fed with antibiotics or grown using hormones. In addition, it can be stipulated that organic foods are kinder to the environment than conventional foods. That way, organic farming activities are usually designed in order to remain sustainable and emphasize on both conservation and reduction of pollutants (Dangour et.al, 2010). Despite the many arguments against organic foods, it can be deduced that they are healthier than conventional foods due to the fact that studies have indicated that they have a gr eater nutritional value than the conventional products. Some also argue that eating organic food increases one’s exposure to many biological aspects hence putting the person at a high risk of food-borne illnesses. Several concerns have been raised against organic food due to manure, mycotoxins from the molds, and E. coli bacteria. However, organic foods are the best in terms of control of illnesses. They are unlikely to lead to the increased risk of cancer. Any traces of chemicals can also be washed away. Organic food has been proven to be friendly to the environment, because it assists in reduction of pollution as well as greenhouse gases from the production of food through the restrictions on the use of artificial fertilizers and pest control chemicals. Organic farms are also havens for wildlife since they offer homes for bees and butterflies. Moreover, plant, bird, and insect life comprises 50% of organic farmers (Seufert, Ramankutty Foley, 2012). That means that organic farming has taken a large part of the world. Organic food s are grown under the stipulated standards so that animals should be provided a lot of space as well as fresh air in order to grow and thrive with a guarantee of a free-range life. Most importantly, some may complain about the prices of organic foods claiming that they are more expensive than conventional foods. However, organic foods offer many advantages that make them better alternative foods. Organic foods assist in prevention diseases such as cancer and other related heart diseases. Research has shown that organic fruits as well as vegetables have almost 40% of antioxidants that help in reduction of cancer, heart disease, and stroke risks. They also consist of salicylic acids that assist in preventing the hardening of arteries and prevent cancer. It can be deduced that organic food provides more advantages than non-organic foods that are considered as fast-growing. Organic fruits and vegetables are only grown by a few farmers across the world despite the fact that they are in high demand. It is wise to state that organic foods are better than conventional foods due to their high value. Another considerable advantage of organic foods is that they have good tastes along with high nutritious values as compared to other types of foods. They have a notable natural flavor, because they lack additives that give other foods a diverse taste. Recent studies have proven the benefits of organic foods. They have found out that organic foods consist of more mineral salts along with other healthy chemicals than those consisted by non-organic foods. Most importantly, organic foods have the best effect on the reproduction of animals. Many researches have been conducted on animals and revealed that animals fed with organic foods become more reproductive than those fed with non-organic foods (Dangour et.al, 2010). Moreover, one of the main causes of infertility in animals is a large intake of chemicals that are riddled in their foods. It has become clear that organic foods offer better value than conventional food despite the fact that they have been criticized to have a short shelf life due to the lack of additives. Furthermore, organic foods assist in controlling weight in humans and animals. Research has provided that obesity is associated with intake of conventional foods such as canned food and fruits among others due to the preservatives. Obesity has become a major problem among Americans and has provoked continuous debates even at the congress level. It has become confusing if to define obesity as an epidemic. Organic foods assist one to control and maintain their diets. It is clear that the advantages of organic foods outweigh the disadvantages of the same meaning that organic foods are better than conventional ones that have been associated with many health problems across the world, the major ones being cancer and heart diseases. Organic foods can be found from farmers, buying in bulk during the peak seasons or growing organic fruits and vegetables (Crinnion, 2010). One can also breed organic animals for food purposes. Therefore, growing and intake of organic foods should be encouraged across the world in order to ensure that people are safe and healthy. Organic vs. Inorganic Food Debate on which food is healthy for human consumption has been present for many years. The non-organic versus organic argument has been present since the early 1970s. As early as 1970s, biology professors in different universities around the world were skeptical that there were some major benefits of either consuming organic or non-organic food. In the market, there is a wide variety of food which one can choose. People who are conscious of what they eat will always think about what they are ingesting. However, it is commonly agreed that people will always want to eat nutritious, good and healthy foods so as to live long and vigorous lives. The present world is full of cheap and processed foods. Although organic food promises a better life, it is impossible or hard to stick to one food type. This is because both non-organic and organic foods differ significantly. However, organic food is still favored by many people. To understand the contentious issue between organic and inorganic foods, it is essential to understand what they are. To start with, organic foods are food items that are produced or processed without the use of chemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers. On the other hand, inorganic foods are produced with the help of synthetics to get finished products. People believe that organic foods are better than inorganic, but biological test has proved that these two types of foods are almost similar. The pioneers of organic farming saw organic foods as having more life enhancing qualities than the inorganic ones. While there are some heated arguments that encourage the consumption of organic foods, it is still better than regular food that is not organic. In addition, these food items are not genetically modified. In the recent past, organic foods have become increasingly popular. The craze for these food items has swept many nations, and the demand for them is now on the rise. New expensive health food outlets have opened up in many regions and are stocking organic foods only. This has been informed by the recent health related issues. Doctors and nutritionist are encouraging people to change their eating habits by embracing natural diets that have been proved to be healthy. Just like the saying goes, an apple a day keeps the doctor away, a research by Chhabra, Kolli, and Bauer has proved this to be true. According to these researchers, organically grown food provides health benefits to Drosophila melanogaster. As stated in their research findings, organic food market is rapidly growing because of consumer’s perception of superior quality of organic foodstuff. To show that organic products were more balanced in terms of nutritional value than inorganic or conventional foods, they condu cted their research using flies. Their research proved that organic foods provide greater amounts of nutrients which lead to longevity and improved fertility (Chhabra, Kolli, Bauer, 2013). In order to show that organic products provided substantial nutritional benefits, the survival times of starving flies were determined. Flies that were raised on organic food (potato extracts) endured wet starvation considerably longer than those raised on inorganic or conventional extracts. The former also had a higher overall activity than flies that had ordinary diets. The fundamental question that begs to be answered is why flies that were raised on organic extracts didnt show outstanding activity. Was it because of their own developed resistance or because of the food type they were fed? These unsatisfactory questions or issues were addressed by performing preliminary analysis using a simple and convenient model system (Chhabra, Kolli, Bauer, 2013). The research was conducted using Drosophi la melanogaster. Recent studies have proved that this fly can be used to model consequences of disrupted metabolic homeostasis. Therefore, it can be concluded at this point that organic foods have more nutritional value than in-organic ones (Chhabra, Kolli, Bauer, 2013). To show that organic food is better than inorganic, another group of researchers surveyed food patterns among pregnant women. They also investigated dietary quality associated with organic food consumption during pregnancy among women in Norway. This study was aiming at describing dietary characteristics associated with frequent consumption of organic food among pregnant women. In this study, pregnant women who reported frequent consumption of organic or organically produced foods had dietary of the quality that was in line with public advice for healthy and sustainable diets (Torjusen et al., 2013). The importance of quality nutrition during pregnancy is beneficial to both the mother and the child. Preservatives and synthetics used in non-organic foods are addictive and can have adverse effects on the unborn child or the mother (Torjusen et al., 2013). The main finding from this research was that regular intake of organic foods among pregnant women was associated with good health. Women who reported a high consumption of organic food items scored high on the health and sustainability component (PCI). It was evident that an organic diet composed of fruits, vegetables and whole grain is essential for maternal health (Torjusen et al., 2013). However, a proponent of organic food can argue and say that maternal health is determined not only by the dietary consu mption but also by access to health care. The truth of the matter is that a developing fetus depends on the dietary intake of the mother (Torjusen et al., 2013). Another reason for organic food to remain the preferred food type is because the composition of non-organic food remains a misery to many. Non-organic or inorganic foods use synthetics for production purposes. Some of them include pesticides and fertilizers. Additionally, inorganic foods are not safe because producers can modify food items at genetic or molecular level. The use on non-organic food produce has been associated with estrogenic compounds in the body. All organophosphate chemicals from bug spray fertilizers are highly estrogenic. Inside the body, estrogen can cause cancer, uterine fibroids, infertility, or organ malfunctioning. In another research aiming to access the consumer behavior from Moldova area towards organic food, majority of the respondents said that they preferred organic food. According to this research, at the end of 2011, there were more than 37 million certified organic farmers. The largest grow of organic food was in Europe where cultivation of organic f oods increased from 0.8 million hectares to 10 million hectares by the end of 2009 (Stoleru, Munteanu, Jitareanu, 2012). This is a good indicator of the demand for organic food increase. Opponents of organic food claim that when one is growing organic food naturally, there are a lot of contaminations. However, the truth of the matter is that these food items do not utilize chemicals or fertilizers to boost production. Organic food is produced using natural means where even pest control is done using biological methods. Weeding is done mechanically or manually without the use of chemicals such as pesticides of herbicides (Stoleru, Munteanu, Jitareanu, 2012). According to the official information or data from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Romania, since 2011, there has been a noticeable increase in organic systems. This has been followed by an explosion of organic food consumption among many people and households. To ensure that consumers are aware of what they are buying, many authorities have made it mandatory for effective labeling of food products. Many countries have introduced the new mandatory EU logo for organic foods (Stoleru, Munteanu, Jitareanu, 2012). As the aim of this research was to access the consumer behavior from Moldova area towards organic food, consumption frequency of organic products indicated most people ate organic foods. 45.13% of the respondents said that they had consumed organic food more than once in a week (Stoleru, Munteanu, Jitareanu, 2012). The most consumed organic food items were fruits, basic products, vegetables and beverages. Someone may point out that organic food is always expensive compared to inorganic. Proponents of inorganic food may claim that production of inorganic foods is cheap. While this is true, people are increasingly becoming conscious of what they eat. They are opting for food products that have no chemicals. Therefore, most people do not consider buying cheap inorganic foods which are full of chemicals (Stoleru, Munteanu, Jitareanu, 2012). Instead, more and more are turning to organic food despite its high price. What most proponents of inorganic food do not remember is that it is always good to prevent a disease than curing. As a result of increased use of chemicals in the production of inorganic foods, a lot of chemicals end up being used. Some of these chemicals are carcinogenic and people end up suffering cancer. Today, treating cancer is very expensive, and this is what people who prefer organic food have realized. For them, it is better buying the expensive organic foods rather than buy the carcinogenic inorganic ones (Stoleru, Munteanu, Jitareanu, 2012). Another study aiming to access consumer attitudes, knowledge and consumption of organic yogurt was conducted. The research findings indicated that most consumers had a positive perception of organic yogurt quality. Most people evaluate organic yogurt more highly than conventional yogurt on the aspects of healthiness, quality, taste safety, packaging, environmental friendliness and trustworthiness (Van Loo, Diem, Pieniak, Verbeke, 2012). Consumers rate the healthiness of organic yogurt as the attribute with the greatest difference between from inorganic yogurt. This is consistent with other studies indicating that health and food safety are the key drivers for organic food purchase. The second largest perceived difference is the perception that organic yogurt is environmentally friendly (Van Loo, Diem, Pieniak, Verbeke, 2012). This is also a good indicator of why organic yogurt has continued to be bought in large amounts. Therefore, it can be concluded that organic products such as yogurt will continue leading in terms of purchases (Van Loo, Diem, Pieniak, Verbeke, 2012). In a research conducted by Murali Gopal, Alka Gupta and George Thomas, soil microbes need food that is provided through recycling Agro wastes. According to this research, if enough compounds can be introduced to the soil through recycling, there is no need to use synthetics such as fertilizers. Increasing evidence is indicating that soil microorganisms are responsible for the provision of food to the world (Gopal, Gupta, Thomas, 2013). However, less importance has been given to satisfy the needs of millions of soil microbes. Carbon presented as soil organic carbon is the food that these microbes eat. In India, hundreds of tons of carbon present in agro-wastes are squandered by burning. Through recycling of agro-wastes, carbon is returned to the soil to provide food for the microbes. Therefore, there is no need of using synthetics or chemicals to produce food (Gopal, Gupta Thomas, 2013). However, one may ask if recycling can control pests in the process of organic food production. T he answer to this question is that there are better methods of controlling pests and weed. Biological control of pests has been known for not only enhancing safe food production, but also to be environmentally friendly. Therefore, there is no doubt that organic food is a better option when compared to inorganic foods (Gopal, Gupta, Thomas, 2013). live CHAT In an effort to prove that inorganic food is better than organic, Rafi Grosglik conducted a research on organic hummus and cultural globalization in Israel. Hummus has become a common food in Israel and its becoming a cultural identity of the country (Grosglik, 2011). It is customary to see organic food representing locality, health, ecology and social justice. It also embodies representations of globalism and westernism. This is because of its addition to the international industrial system and its background among the materialistic social elite in the Western world. The production, distribution and consumption of organic hummus show an increase in its demand. Global socioeconomic situations and concepts entrenched in the model of organic food associated to hummus allow the imagined localization of the dish (Grosglik, 2011). Hummus is a dish assumed to represent earthiness, local simplicity and rootedness. However, in the current context of organic and inorganic, the organic version of hummus wears a symbolic and economic framework. This is not only in Israel but globally. It has been used to demonstrate a symbolic cosmopolitan. In conclusion, this argument of which food type is better for human consumption should come to an end because organic food is the best without any doubts (Grosglik, 2011). Organic foods have an extremely high profile and are continuing to be popular in many grocery stores. People should not be blinded by cheap inorganic foods that have been linked to various cancers. Genetically modified foods have a great impact on the world today. If more countries accepted the consumption of GMO foods, the problem of hunger would be long gone. The number of deaths associated with starvation would reduce considerably, and poor countries would use their income on economic development rather than on household items. Many people would also earn their living through farming regardless of their climatic location since GMO foods are resistant to harsh climatic changes. The issue of environmental conservation would also be boosted since there would be less pollution from pesticides and other farming chemicals resulting from their reduced application. Developing countries should also embrace genetically modified foods to counter the effects of droughts on food production. Genetically modified foods are the solution to many of the food problems facing numerous countries today and should be accepted instead of being rejected. Advantages of organic foods outweigh their disadvantages. Conventional food have been known to cause several illnesses and obesity meaning that overtaking them renders people to high risks of illnesses. Organic foods have also been cited as safe to both humans and animals. Moreover, they are environmentally friendly since they help to control pollution. Organic foods have also been associated with good tastes despite the fact that they are in low supply since they are produced by counted farmers across the world. Therefore, organic foods are better than non-organic.

Final Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Final - Research Paper Example The necessity to create and develop new and cleaner supply of energy is both an imperative of environmental conservation and economics. The urgency of creating and developing new energy supply is urgent due to the damage wrought by the excessive carbon emission of the traditional sources of energy that caused irreversible climate change and other irreversible damage to the environment (Kelly, 2008). One alternative that is seriously considered is nuclear power. Just like any other source of power, nuclear power has its benefits and disadvantages. One of the most popular argument for the preferential use of nuclear power as an alternative source of energy is that it does not produce pollutants and thus can mitigate the effect of climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emission especially carbon dioxide. It also makes energy supplies more secure as the diversification of energy source will lessen the dependency on fuel imports. It is also a cheap source of energy as one single nuclea r power plant can produce tremendous amount of electricity. There are however concerns about the use of nuclear power as an alternative source of energy. Foremost to these concerns is the possibility of a nuclear meltdown just like what happened to Chernobyl and Fukushima Daiichi in Japan. Next is the issue of the disposal of radioactive waste which can prove to be deadly when a living thing is exposed, that includes humans, animals and plants. The Chernobyl disaster demonstrated how devastating a nuclear meltdown is that the nearby town of Pripyat in Ukraine still remained uninhabited today after the 1986 disaster and made it a reason why nuclear technology should not be used. The present reality however compels a serious consideration of an alternative source of energy. At present, other sources of energy are already depleted because they are non renewable and needs to be abandoned because they pollute the environment (Armaroli, & Balzani, 2011). Nuclear power provides an excellen t alternative because it does not release any pollutants to the atmosphere. Unlike the traditional fossil fuel which converts itself into carbon dioxide during its conversion into electrical energy, nuclear power does not emit carbon dioxide because it is not being burned to create electrical energy (Clemmit, 2010). Energy is created in a chemical process which decomposition takes place exothermally that heats up a water to create a steam that would consequently propel the connecting turbine to create electrical energy from a stored chemical energy. This technology was already available since 1600s and may have been first used as a weapon to bomb the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in the Second World War (Graetz, 2011) but it was only in 1957 that it was first used as a source of energy when the first nuclear power plant was constructed at Pennsylvania when a uranium atom was discovered that could be split to produce sub-atomic particles of high energy content (Kelley, 2008). The nuclear power as a source of energy also proved to be efficient because it only requires a very small amount of raw materials to produce a large quantity of energy (Cavallaro, 2010). Raiput even estimated that it a single nuclear plant could supply energy for an entire country for a long time (2006). It is also cost efficient because it requires minimal cost in its maintenance that could last up to sixty years (the regular

BUSINESS LAW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

BUSINESS LAW - Essay Example The Parliament of United Kingdom can make whatever laws it wishes. There are number of areas where the legal rules of the Parliament of United Kingdom are applied. Public Acts are made by the Parliament of United Kingdom, and they are related with the issues relating with the general public. On the other hand, Private Acts are those Acts that encompasses the legal structure for the private or particular institutions or individuals. Furthermore, the Acts of Parliament can be identified with the functions. For example, sometimes, the members of Parliament are required to discuss new rules, to change or amend or modify the existing legal provisions. Also, Consolidating Legislation is made to consolidate the provisions previously consisted of different Acts. It was the use of this Consolidation Legislation that created the Companies Act 2006. Case Law This type of law is created by the judges during the process of deciding cases. In the case law, there are two important doctrines. One is stare decisis or binding precedent and second is obiter dictum. Stare decisis or binding precedents are the previous decisions, which are those precedents that are needed to be followed by the courts, which are either equal or above them in the court hierarchy. The doctrine of binding precedents lies at the heart of the legal system of United Kingdom (Exam-kit, ACCA F4, 2007-08).And in the case of obiter dictum, the courts are not bound to follow them. In the legal matters, the case law are of great important and they provide sufficient amount of guidance to carry out the process of legal nature in case any legal problem is arrived. The European Union The United Kingdom is a part of the European Union. After joining the European Union, the citizens and the United Kingdom have obligation to follow the related rules of the European Union. The important areas where the rules of European Union are applied and which are relevant are: international agreements, internal treaties and inter nal protocols and the decision of the European Court of Justice. Custom Custom is a set of old laws. ‘Much of how Parliament does its business is not determined by rules but has become established through continued use over the centuries’- this is known as custom and practice (UK Parliament). These laws are followed for years. These are the local customs which have been in existence since time immemorial. There are many limitations in this source. As a result, there are less chances of this source to provide a reasonable current and future source of the contemporary law in United Kingdom. Effects of Legislation on business Legislation has some positive and some negative impacts on business. As we know there are two types of legislation- primary legislation and secondary legislation. Primary Legislation is carried out and done by the Parliament of United Kingdom. And, the Parliament has delegated the process of secondary legislation to some person or somebody, or a busin ess. Secondary legislation is also called as delegated legislation. The rules and laws made by with the help of secondary legislation have same legal force and have some legal effect as the Acts of Parliament. With the availability of delegated legislation, a business can make any rules and regulations that it finds reasonable and appropriate as long as they do not contradict with the rules and provisions of Acts of Parliament. If the rules passed with the help of

The effect of drying process in Micro Brushes Case Study - 1

The effect of drying process in Micro Brushes - Case Study Example This implies that the surface tension is not strong enough to accommodate the increase in the pillar elasticity (Tresco 350). The elastic modulus of the pillars can also be altered by adding a softener to the original polymer so as to decrease the stiffness of the pillars or mixing the polymers with Si nanoparticles to increase stiffness of the pillars. The result that the number of posts per assembly is inversely proportional to the modulus. When either the diameter or the modulus increases, the observed range of assembly size decreases, showing that the range is proportional to the maximum assembly size (Decker 620). Figures a, b and c above shows the effect of the pillar modulus concerning the size and arrangement of accumulated clusters. Figure d shows the plot of the number of posts per assembly as a function of the modulus for a certain given diameter (Kang et al. 6325). Evaporation-induced self-assembly in the micro brushes is due to the competition that exists between the capillary and the Van Der Waals forces. The inter pillar adhesion is also important in determining the nature of the final assembly of the micro bristles. The assembly is normally biphasic. The second phase is very much observable when the pillar stiffness is relatively high as observed in SEM image S2G. A large assembly forms under the influence of the capillary force but as the liquid dries, it breaks into smaller clusters that are equal to the immediate precursors. Given the fact that adhesion alone balances the elastic deformation in the dry system, it is observable that adhesion is not sufficient to maintain the last storage of the assembly. The balance between the adhesion and the elasticity determines the number of hierarchical stages that will be preserved in the micro bristles in the micro brushes. The balance between the elasticity and the capillary will determine the m aximum size that the micro

The disintegration of religion

The disintegration of religion The disintegration of religion Secularism is understood as the disintegration of religion from democratic process of a state. In our society, social, political and economical values and decisions are highly integrated and, more often than not, are created and based around a backbone of theology and religion. It is because of this structure that secularism cannot be a functional element of the western world. For the purpose of this paper I will concentrate on Americas continued infatuation with religion and religious practices. To be more specific on Secularism in the western world I want to concentrate on America to be able to expand and fully understand the close ties that exists between Americas government and the religious right. American economic and social policies have created a sort of free market when it comes to its citizens desire for religious choice. Since there is a large variety of religions within the United States, it is only natural for people to be interested in what these different denominations have to offer and if these offerings appeal to them. According to Anderson, the amount and intensity of religiosity a culture exhibits depend on the quality and quantity of religion available. (Anderson) The ease of accessibility of religion in America can thus be perceived as the flood of religion, and when religious becomes pluralistic it also becomes more active, energetic and integrated into peoples lives. It is important to recognize the dominance of religious belief in America to fully understand the integration of religious ideas and practices into democratic decisions. Upward of 60 percent of Americans (nearly thrice the European percentage) claim that religion plays a very important role in their daily lives, and more than 80 percent of Americans profess belief in God. (Anderson) If there is such a high percentage of Americans claiming that religion plays a direct role in their daily lives, the heavy incorporation of religion into democratic procedures and decisions comes as no shock. With many Americans using religion to help them make decisions on a day to day basis through their interaction with others it is difficult to persuade them to disintegrate Church and State. The United States has more religious institutions per capita than any other nation on Earth. With religion being so profoundly integrated into American society, it follows that religion must also play a key role in their democratic and social practices. The general opinion is that government in the United States can be separate from its members religious views. Although this seems like an ideal situation for governing a state of many people, this is not reality. American foreign and domestic laws are put in place in an attempt to halt perceived evil doings. These perceptions are created and bestowed into our minds because of our individual religious beliefs. These evil doings are understood and thought as being evil because of some sort of religious connotation and backbone of belief that the acts that these laws are restricting are bad. A large reason why people look for religious truth is to reinforce some form of good, or light at the end of the tunnel. The notion of good and evil comes from the issue of human morality and human morality steams from some sort of religious belief. Religion is now the most powerful predictor of party identification and partisan voting intention. (Anderson) American political parties are shaping the message they convey to their people based on what these people want to hear. When people of a state are told what must be done in order to achieve and create a better country for its citizens they are expecting to hear what they, themselves would do in particular situations that arise when governing a country. In order for political parties to gain confidence from their projected voting populous they must present their arguments for change in ways their voters can agree and rejoice upon. With the majority of Republican supporters commencing from Christian faith it is a matter of excellent political strategy to completely integrate your potential governmental policies around that of the Christian faith, to also have party leaders who are committed Christians themselves, and to show and promote an agenda of Political change according t o the doctrines of that religious faith. Through polling, it has become evident that Republican supporters throughout the United States are heavily involved in religious practices. Many believe that the Republication Party is becoming an extension of the Religious Right in the United States. The Republican Party, its members and its followers all share a similar religious view, and many consider the Party to have a faith-based initiative and agenda for the American people. This integration of beliefs between Party and people is essential to the Partys political success. The Partys views on domestic and foreign policy are fueled by these similar beliefs that they share with their devoted followers, which are rooted directly within religion. Even through present modernization of the world, its understanding how things work, and advances in modern science, American political parties, government, and social organizations are holding onto their devoted religious values and stick to their known right of religious practice. Americ an secularists must face the fact that most U.S. citizens believe in God (Stout). These people are going to elect representatives that they believe have the ability and willpower to protect the constitutional rights as fellow believers and to also act on those beliefs as deemed necessary. During the American year 2000 election, four out of every ten votes George W. Bush received were from Christian voters. This is a very significant amount of votes when understanding the impact they have to decide the winner of an election. The interests of a religious group can be taken care of when one can ensure the candidate is willing to push Christian values and gets voted in through the power of numbers. Amongst American voters, white Evangelical people now make up nearly two thirds of American registered voters. (Anderson) Through the power of election, these religious conservatives shape the way American society interacts with itself and dictates Americas foreign policy through a very specific religious agenda. American views on family life, charity, correctional facilities, drug laws, welfare, etc. are all fueled by the backbone that the country has in its administrations present and past religious integrations. The hidden shadow of religious belief surrounding all aspects o f American life acts to quietly regulate their national and domestic agenda with an attempt to avoid a backlash from non-believers. These actions have the approval and they resonate with many American peoples, (though they horrify countless secular, relativistic American and European peoples), with the power of democracy; majority wins. In European countries there is a trend shifting away from the integration of Church, people, and State as many people in these countries are now removed from their religious constraints. It is believed that the push towards modernity in a state brings about secularist changes. This is most noticeable in European countries where attendance at religious services is declining considerably. Religious organizations within Europe are seeing a decline in attendance, an increase in the median age of believers, and indifference in beliefs. Almost all of Western Europes spiritual existence now conveys the sagacity of collapse and lack of interest. Young Europeans are apt to a more individualistic and secular approach in their daily lives and this is reflected in their social, democratic, and economic views, which can be directly correlated with their dealings- not only domestically but abroad as well. If the modernity of Western European countries is pushing social and democratic views towards a more secular state, then why has this not occurred within the United States and the rest of the western world? If modernity inevitably brings secularism, a disenchantment of the world, then how is it that the United States-the modern nation par excellence-is so religious? (Anderson) The European modernity movement has fashioned a division of church and state, while the modernization of the Unites States has brought about very heavy integration of Church and State, thereby further uniting religion and democracy in solitary. With the continued integration of religious beliefs into American Politics, many around the world are concerned over where the American political agenda is headed in terms of foreign relations and policy. There is a thought that the fundamentalist views located within American politics are slowly hijacking the United States and their state of being. With modern science being so integrated into peoples lives it is startling to believe how many Americans believe perceived absolute religious truth over scientific evidence and testimony Three times as many Americans believe in the Virgin Birth as in Evolution. (Anderson) Many believe that Americas foreign policy during the Bush administration was fueled by a religious agenda. Forcing the religious nature of the United States and their Christian values on whomever they see as different and less superior has been seen in many instances throughout the Bush administrations term in office. Americas crusade in the Muslim world is seen as a push of their religious views on people whom they see as different and with less superior religious conclusions; this is all said to be masked by a war on terror. Many believe that this religious crusade coul d also push the United States to cut its foreign aid to countries that use the acquired assistance in ways that may not be religiously accepted at home, i.e. to hand out birth control to its citizens. On the other hand there are various specific historical instances where true change would not have been able to come about had secularist views been followed, for example the South African triumph over apartheid and the Polish triumph over Soviet oppression. (Stout) If during the African triumph over apartheid Nelson Mandela had taken a secular stance against the apartheid then he would have not gained the support of African and World Churches. If during the Polish triumph religious intervention did not exist then Poland would be at a standstill and a dead end. In these instances the integration of Church and State is very important and helped break constraining and persecuting road blocks. The integration of Church and State within the United States dictates how America interacts with other nations, and with other nations focusing on becoming more secular by disintegrating Church and State foreign relations between America and many countries is being severely tainted. Understanding the implications of a secular world living with a very non-secular United States is very important when understanding and contemplating the correction of foreign relationships throughout the world. Secularism is understood as the disintegration of religion from democratic process of a state. In America, social and political standards are greatly incorporated, shaped and implemented based around a composition of theology and religion. It is because of this very integrated structure that secularism is not a practical component of the western world, more particularly in the United States of America. Democratic secularists in America face a very difficult predicament and when they take their opinions, attempt to act on them through action, they are likely to fall short when attempted to be fully put into use. True secularists in America seem to lack strategy and their means have no end, and that at the crucial point in the argument, everything becomes vague (Stout).

Use of the Classical Tragic Mold in Shakespeares Macbeth :: Macbeth essays

Macbeth: The Use of the Classical Tragic Mold in Character Development In Shakespeare's tragedy, Macbeth, there are many characters. Only one character stands out, and his name is in the title of the play. Macbeth's character was made in the mold of the ancient Greek tragic hero. Besides being endowed by Shakespeare with an abundance and variety of potential traits and characteristics, Macbeth also follows the Classical Tragic Mold, which is presented with a hefty supply of hubris, and in this case, ambition. Because Macbeth follows the Classical Tragic Mold, he is a Classical Tragic Hero. The first step of the Classical Tragic Mold is recognizing the problem. The problem in Macbeth is not a true problem that presents itself outwardly. The problem for the character of Macbeth is deciding if he should listen to his ambition and kill Duncan. At first, he ponders reasons why not to kill his king. He at first thinks that he cannot kill him because of four reasons: Macbeth is Duncan's subject, Duncan is a good king, they are blood-related, and Macbeth is his host. These reasons dissuade Macbeth at first, but later Lady Macbeth convinces him, by questioning his manhood, to commit the dastardly crime. When he finally murders Duncan, the problem comes to closure. But, even long before then, the next step in the mold had begun: the descent into the abyss. The "decent into the abyss" is the second step in the Classical Tragic Mold. It is started with Macbeth's second soliloquy. This is after Macbeth hears from Duncan that Malcolm was to be named the Prince of Cumberland. "The Prince of Cumberland! That is a step on which I must fall down, or else o'erleap, for in my way it lies ... Let not light see my black and deep desires." (Shakespeare, 281). This quote from the soliloquy indicates that Macbeth has, indeed, told himself that he will commit the murder of Duncan, although he doesn't actually admit it until his wife pressures him to do so. With this decision, the reader (or audience) reads (or sees) that Macbeth is straying from the righteous path, and descending into the abyss, even though he is keeping his feelings to himself. His decision to murder Duncan tarnishes his "war hero" image and casts it in an ominous shadow. The third step in the mold has two parts and is known as Transformation and Transcendence. The character of Macbeth goes into Transformation during his fourth soliloquy. "...I have lived long enough. My way of life is fall'n into the sear..." (Shakespeare, 343).

It Report on Networking

CHAPTER ONE 1. 0INTRODUCTION 1. 1BACKGROUND SIWES was established by ITF in 1973 to solve the problem of lack of adequate practical skills preparatory for employment in industries by Nigerian graduates of tertiary institutions. The Scheme exposes students to industry based skills necessary for a smooth transition from the classroom to the world of work. It affords students of tertiary institutions the opportunity of being familiarized and exposed to the needed experience in handling machinery and equipment which are usually not available in the educational institutions.Participation in Industrial Training is a well-known educational strategy. Classroom studies are integrated with learning through hands-on work experiences in a field related to the student’s academic major and career goals. Successful internships foster an experiential learning process that not only promotes career preparation but provides opportunities for learners to develop skills necessary to become leaders in their chosen professions. One of the primary goals of the SIWES is to help students integrate leadership development into the experiential learning process.Students are expected to learn and develop basic non-profit leadership skills through a mentoring relationship with innovative non-profit leaders. By integrating leadership development activities into the Industrial Training experience, we hope to encourage students to actively engage in non-profit management as a professional career objective. However, the effectiveness of the SIWES experience will have varying outcomes based upon the individual student, the work assignment, and the supervisor/mentor requirements.It is vital that each internship position description includes specific, written learning objectives to ensure leadership skill development is incorporated. Participation in SIWES has become a necessary pre-condition for the award of Diploma and Degree certificates in specific disciplines in most institutions of hig her learning in the country, in accordance with the education policy of government. Operators-The ITF, the coordinating agencies (NUC, NCCE, NBTE), employers of labor and the institutions. Funding-The Federal Government of Nigeria Beneficiaries- Undergraduate students of the following:Agriculture, Engineering, Technology, Environmental, Science, Education, Medical Science and Pure and Applied Sciences. Duration -Four months for Polytechnics and Colleges of Education, and Six months for the Universities. 1. 2 OBJECTIVES 1. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to test their interest in a particular career before permanent commitments are made. 2. SIWES students will develop skills in the application of theory to practical work situations. 3. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to test their aptitude for a particular career before permanent commitments are made. 4.SIWES students will develop skills and techniques directly applicable to their careers. 5. SIWES will aid st udents in adjusting from college to full-time employment. 6. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to develop attitudes conducive to effective interpersonal relationships. 7. SIWES will increase a student's sense of responsibility. 8. SIWES students will be prepared to enter into full-time employment in their area of specialization upon graduation. 9. SIWES students will acquire good work habits. 10. SIWES students will develop employment records/references that will enhance employment opportunities. 1. SIWES will provide students with an in-depth knowledge of the formal functional activities of a participating organization. 12. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to understand informal organizational interrelationships. 13. SIWES students will have higher levels of academic performances. 14. SIWES will increase student earning potential upon graduation. 15. SIWES Students will be able to outline at least five specific goals with several staff members by comparing perf ormance with job duties and develop a draft plan with staff to accomplish performance needs, supervision plan and rewards. . 3BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF ATTACHMENT The Information communication Department in the Governor’s office was first established in 2003 as a unit by the then Governor of the State, Governor Donald Duke. In 2007 it became a Department with Nine Units namely, 1. Training unit 2. Maintenance unit 3. Networking unit 4. Information system application 5. Audit unit 6. Account unit 7. PRS unit 8. Administration 9. Support unit 1. 4BRIEF DUTIES OF EACH UNITTRAINING UNIT- this unit does the training of students in Computer literacy and also runs a certificate program in CCNA and project management, comptia A+ MAINTENANCE UNIT- This Unit is in charge of maintenance of all computer systems in the department NETWORKING UNIT- This unit is in charge of Network administration in the department and in all the MDAs and the Governor’s office, this unit t akes care of the states network affairs INFORMATION SYSTEM APPLICATION UNIT- This unit is in charge of the database of the establishment Support unit- this unit is in or supports the network unit in network administration.GOALS Vision to be a leading ICT driven state in the country Mission to create an information rich, knowledge driven society RESPONSIBILITIES Is to make sure that we meet our client requirement and need in the various MDA and give them better service delivery CHAPTER TWO 2. 0 LITERATURE REVIEWIn the course of my training with the ICT Department in Governor’s Office I was privileged to work with the support Unit which is in charge of administration of the Cross River State Network the Cross River State Network this works with the Database Center at the Governor’s Office where the Network Operating Centre(NOC) is Located This Units is in charge of the network and makes sure that all Ministries Departments Agencies are Connected to the network at all tim es, in case of Network breach the units does troubleshooting to rectify the problems as fast as possible. . 1NETWORK DOMAIN AND ADMINISTRATION. (SUMMARY ON THE CROSS RIVER STATE NETWORK) Cross River State Network uses a domain to organize the network environment. Domains are groups of PCs on the same network and are a method to isolate communications between the members in the domain and the other data traffic. Anyone in a domain can communicate with each other and out bound, however PCs not defined in the domain cannot communicate with those in the domain.Basically the network starts from when the satellite in space sends radio signals down to the satellite dish receiver (ku-band, ka-band, c-band e. t. c). This satellite dish receiver is connected to the private port of the internet modem then the public port of the modem is connected to the ISA server which acts as the gateway to internet access. The ISA server is connected to a domain controller which controls the domain environm ent by granting anyone who has a registered account on the domain access to the internet recourse.I. e. anyone who does not have an account or valid log on credentials cannot use the internet. Domain controller can also be used to control the network environment by restricting the rights to chance setting on the workstation so that only administrative rights can alter settings. The ISA server is also connected to an antivirus server which monitors the automatic updates and downloading of update for all workstation in the domain with a specific antivirus used for the network installed on them.The ISA server is also connected to a 24 port switch which is connected to the different switch cabinet in each directorate of office buildings (since it is a 24 port switch it take a maximum of 23 directorates, another switch can be connected to the first switch in case of more buildings). Ever building has a cabinet where LAN (local area network) connections are distributed to different office s. The cabinet comprises of switches and patch panels. The patch panel is a device that is used as a repeater so that signals don’t get loss over a long cable.One of the cables that comes from the main 24 port switch goes to the patch panel then a RJ-45 cable is connected from the patch panel to the switch (mostly a 24-port switch) in the cabinet (in case of two switches we have two patch panels. ). The patch panel then distributes the connection in the office or to other offices in the building as LAN port where workstations can be connected to by the use of RJ-45 cable (workstations can also be connected directly to the switch). As for wireless connection, a wireless router or access point is placed at every passage way in each building.The wireless access point is either connected to one of the switches in the cabinet or the main 24-port switch. 2. 2 ISA SERVER/PROXY SERVER/GATEWAY The ISA server also acts as a proxy server/gateway. A proxy server is a server that acts as an intermediary between a workstation user and the Internet so that the enterprise can ensure security, administrative control, and caching service. A proxy server is associated with or part of a gateway server that separates the enterprise network from the outside network and a firewall server that protects the enterprise network from outside intrusion.An advantage of a proxy server is that its cache can serve all users. If one or more Internet sites are frequently requested, these are likely to be in the proxy's cache, which will improve user response time. A proxy can also do logging. A user on a workstation which is connected to the domain can only view the internet if the address and port number of the ISA server is set in the proxy address and port settings. 2. 3 HOW TO SET THE PROXY SETTINGS: †¢STEP 1: Click tools then click internet options on the browser. STEP 2: Click on the connection tab and then click LAN settings. †¢STEP 3: Type in the ISA server ip-address ( e. g. 192. 168. 2. 1) in the address box and also insert the port number (e. g. 3128). 2. 4 HOW TO JOIN A WORKSTATION TO A DOMAIN STEP 1: right-click on my-computer then clicks properties. STEP 2: click on system properties. STEP 3: Click on computer name tab, click change. STEP 4: Type in the computer name (e. g. pro 10), then click the domain radio button and type in the domain name (e. g. dpetri. net), then click ok.STEP 5: After clicking OK you would prompt with a username and password dialog box where only those with administrative credentials would be able to logon. Type in the user name and password, and then click OK. STEP 5: After clicking OK, you would be prompted with a dialog box welcoming you to the domain. Then restart the system. 2. 5 ANTIVIRUS SERVER The antivirus server is a separate system that is connected to the ISA server. It is used to protect the network from harmful treats like spyware (i. e. worm, virus, adware e. t. c. ).The antivirus server makes use of wi ndows server 2003 operating system, with a network antivirus (e. g. e-trust) installed on it. For any workstation on the network to be protected by the network antivirus server a copy of the network antivirus must be installed on them. To make the antivirus copy work with the antivirus server the proxy settings must be set using the antivirus server Ip-address (e. g. 192. 168. 2. 4) as the address in the proxy settings. 2. 6 MAIN SWITCH The main switch is a switch that is used to distribute the network connection to different buildings.A switch is a device that is used to link systems or workstations together. A switch is mainly used in a star topology. Properties of a switch: †¢Collision: this is the jamming of signal in a transmission medium. †¢Collision domain: this is the environment in which collision occurs. †¢ Broadcast: this is the sending of signal from a system to the rest of the system connected to the switch. A broadcast is usually sent across all the coll ision domains as one virtual domain. †¢Broadcast domain: this is the environment in which a broadcast is sent across. Multicast: this is the sending of signal from one system to a selected group of systems connected to the switch. †¢Unicast: this is a signal that is sent from one system to another. 2. 7PATCH PANEL A patch panel is a panel of network ports contained together, usually within a telecommunications closet that connects incoming and outgoing lines of a LAN or other communication, electronic or electrical system. In a LAN, the patch panel connects the network's computers to each other and to the outside lines that enable the LAN to connect to the Internet or another WAN.Connections are made with patch cords. The patch panel allows circuits to be arranged and rearranged by plugging and unplugging the patch cords. The use of a patch panel is necessary because is help to repeat signals travelled over a cable from a long distance to prevent data loss. A patch panel i s connected to a switch respectively according to the number on each port of both the switch and patch panel. 2. 8 ROUTER/VPN A router is a device or a computer that is used to connect two or more networks together. Routers are physical devices that join multiple wired or wireless networks together.Technically, a wired or wireless router is a Layer 3 gateway, meaning that the wired/wireless router connects networks (as gateways do), and that the router operates at the network layer of the OSI model. A router can also be called a computer because it has a LAN-port, an operating system (OS) and memory. A router has an operating system and a user interface (depending on the brand of the router). The user interface can be viewed by connecting the router via LAN-cable to a computer. 2. 8 STEPS TO VIEW THE USER INTERFACE OF A ROUTER: Know the default IP-address of the router (usually 192. 168. 0. 1). †¢Connect the router to a computer. †¢Open a browser. †¢Click on the file tab. †¢Click on open then a dialog box appears. †¢ Type in the IP-address of the router in the text box and click OK, then a logon dialog box appears. The default username and password are both admin and admin. †¢ Type in the username and password then click OK. In the user interface you can change the Ip-address to suit your company setting, change the security protocol (i. e. either WAP, WAP2, WEB e. t. c), router name e. t. VPN: A VPN (virtual private network) is a device that uses a series of encryption and algorithms to secure the data transmitted over the public internet. It allows users to work on their company network from their home with a higher level of confidence that no one else can access their work i. e. it provides a level of encryption so that an outsider would not be able to hack in to the network. VPN eliminates distance between two computers and establish a secured connection with two computers. A VPN can also act as a router in the sense that it c an be used for connecting two or more networks together.CHAPTER THREE 3. 1HARDWARE AND MAINTAINNACE During the course of training I was also fortunate to receive lectures and training on comptia A+ that is hardware and maintenance which covered Knowledge on system maintenance as a whole approaches on how to prevent system damage. A computer system basically contains the following components/devices: System case, Mother board, Processor, Memory, Graphics card, Sound card, Modem, NIC Card, Hard disk CD-ROM/DVD-ROM Monitor. SYSTEM CASE: A system case is required to hold all your components together. It houses all the internal component of a system.The system cases come in two form factors which are AT and ATX. Nearly all the cases made nowadays are ATX as the motherboard manufacturers make majority of their motherboard in the ATX form. MOTHERBOARD: A motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in a computer that holds many of the crucial components of the system, while provi ding connectors for other peripherals. The motherboard is sometimes alternatively known as the main board, system board. PROCESSOR: The processor (CPU, for Central Processing Unit) is the computer's brain.It allows the processing of numeric data, information entered in binary form, and the execution of instructions stored in memory. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is responsible for interpreting and executing most of the commands from the computer's hardware and software. It is often called the â€Å"brains† of the computer. MEMORY: A memory is the name given to a silicon chips that stores volatile computer data. The word Volatile means that the contents of memory will be lost if the power of the computer switched off. Memory stores some of your operating system and application data while it is being run.The more memory you have in your computer the higher the amount of application you can run simultaneously, and will provide an overall better system performance. Memory com es in different forms. The older system uses SDRAM, while Fig 3. 1 A typical system board The current system uses DDR-SDRAM (Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory). Fig 3. 2 3. 2. SYSTEM BOARD COMPONENTS Now that you understand the basic types of motherboards and their form factors, it’s time to look at the components found on the motherboard and their locations relative to each other Figure 3. illustrates many of the following components found on a typical motherboard: * Chipsets * Expansion slots * Memory slots and external cache * CPU and processor slots or sockets * Power connectors * Onboard disk drive connectors * Keyboard connectors * Peripheral port and connectors * BIOS chip * CMOS battery * Jumpers and DIP switches * Firmware CHIPSETS A chipset is usually designed to work with a specific family of microprocessors. Because it controls communications between the processor and external devices, the chipset plays a crucial role in determining system performance.The manufacturer of a chipset often is independent from the manufacturer of the motherboard. Current manufacturers of chipsets for PC-compatible motherboards include NVIDIA, AMD, VIA Technologies, Intel and Broadcom. There can only be two (2) chipsets in a computer namely Northbridge and Southbridge. NORTHBRIDGE The Northbridge links the CPU to very high-speed devices, especially main memory and graphics controller’s . The communications between the CPU and memory occur over what is known as the front side bus (FSB), which is just a set of signal pathways between the CPU and main memory.The Northbridge chipsets also manage the communications between the Southbridge Chipset and the rest of the computer SOUTHBRIDGE Southbridge connects to lower-speed peripheral buses (such as PCI or ISA). In many modern chipsets, the Southbridge actually contains some on-chip integrated peripherals, such as Ethernet, USB, and audio devices. A typical motherboard chipset for Pentium architecture. EXPANSION SLOTS The most visible parts of any motherboard are the expansion slots. These look like small plastic slots, usually from 3 to 11 inches long and approximately 1? 2 inch wide.As their name suggests, these slots are used to install various devices in the computer to expand its capabilities. Some expansion devices that might be installed in these slots include video, network, sound, and disk interface cards. If you look at the motherboard in your computer, you will more than likely see one of the Main types of expansion slots used in computers today: * ISA * PCI * AGP * PCIe Each type differs in appearance and function. In this section, we will cover how to visually identify the different expansion slots on the motherboard. ISA Expansion SlotsISA bus first appeared in PC based on 80286 CPU. The idea was to put a standard in interfacing with peripheral devices. In our days this bus is kept for compatibility with â€Å"legacy† peripheral devices such as B IOS ROM, Parallel and Serial Ports, Sound and Modem devices. These devices have historical fixed address range (no Plug and Play option) and aren't hurt by low speed of ISA bus (8/16 bit data bus with 8 MHz clock speed). Most modern PCs don't even have extra ISA slots since most peripheral components moved to PCI and USB. ISA bus requires 4 bus cycles for each data transfer. Fig 3. EXPANSION CARD AND SLOT PCI Expansion Slots PCI bus was developed by Intel for high performance peripheral devices, such as graphic accelerators, disk controllers, data acquisition boards. PCI was supposed to overcome limitations of existing ISA bus. 16 bit ISA bus with clock speed of 10 MHz with theoretical bus throughput 2M transfers/sec but practically not more than 500k. PCI bus is much faster: in burst mode PCI can transfer 32 or 64 bit data with 33 MHz or 64 MHz clock, that yields transfer rates from 132 MB/sec to 538 MB/sec, PCI supports huge address range: 32/64 bit address bus instead of 16 bit I SA.It is a burst oriented bus designed for large transfers; hidden bus arbitration among multiple musters is provided on each bus. In theory up to 32 logical devices can reside on PCI bus. But practically, a PCI bus is more likely to have maximum 10 devices because of its low-powered, reflected wave-switching. If more devices is desired PCI to PCI bridge is used. PCI devices are automatically configured in software (Plug and Play option). This eliminates earlier problems with ISA configuration using fixed addresses or user configured switches and jumpers.In recent years some peripheral devices have gotten faster and PCI became too slow for CD and hard disks. Then new interfaces appeared: IDE, SCSI. Fig 3. 4 PCI expansion slot AGP EXPANSION SLOTS AGP port When 3D graphics applications became common, graphic devices were still found on the PCI bus. AGP port provides high speed access to the memory and allows sharing it with local video memory. AGP is not a bus (no competition between devices sitting on the same bus), but port with a dedicated connection between North bridge and graphic accelerator.Speed is 264 MB/s – 1 GB/s Fig 3. 4 An AGP slot PCI EXPANSION SLOTS The newest expansion slot architecture that is being used by motherboards is PCI Express (PCI). It was designed to be a replacement for AGP and PCI. It has the capability of being faster than AGP while maintaining the flexibility of PCI. And motherboards with PCI will have regular PCI slots for backward compatibility with PCI. The diagram below illustrates Pentium IV system. You can see that ISA bus is gone and a new interface introduced: PCI Express. LPC is a subset of PCI (low pin count).PCI Express provides advanced features such as better power management, performance and bandwidth increases, enables support for streaming media, TV tuners, cameras, graphics. POWER CONNECTORS In addition to these sockets and slots on the motherboard, a special connector (shown in allows the motherboard to be connected to the power supply to receive power. This connector is where the ATX power connector plugs in. Fig 3. 5 An ATX power connector Central Processing Unit (CPU) and Processor Socket or Slot The â€Å"brain† of any computer is the central processing unit (CPU).This component does all the calculations and performs 90 percent of all the functions of a computer. There are many different types of processors for computers—so many, typically, in today’s computers, the processor is the easiest component to identify on the motherboard. It is usually the component that has either a fan or a heat sink (usually both) attached to it. These devices are used to draw away the heat a processor generates. This is done because heat is the enemy of microelectronics. Theoretically, a Pentium (or higher) processor generates enough heat that without the heat sink it would self-destruct in a matter of hours.Sockets and slots on the motherboard are as plentiful and varied as proc essors. Sockets are basically flat and have several rows of holes arranged in a square, as shown in Figure 1. 10. The processor slot is another method of connecting a processor to a motherboard, but one into which an Intel Pentium II or Pentium III–class processor on a special expansion card can be inserted. Fig 3. 6 Processors with a fan and heat sinks Fig 3. 7An example of a CPU socket Modern processors can feature the following: OVER CLOCKING: Over clocking your CPU offers increased performance, on a processor designed to operate at the over clocked speed.However, unlike with the processor designed to run that fast, you must make special arrangements to ensure that an over clocked CPU does not destroy itself from the increased heat levels. An advanced cooling mechanism, such as liquid cooling, might be necessary to avoid losing the processor and other components. 3. 3 COMPUTER MEMORY Computer RAM is the best known form of memory your computer uses. Every file or applicatio n opened is placed in RAM. Any information the computer needs or uses becomes part of a continuous cycle where the CPU requests data from RAM, processes it and then writes new data back to RAM.This can happen millions of times a second. However, this is usually just for temporary file storage, so unless the data is saved somewhere, it is deleted when the files or applications are closed 3. 4 HARD DISK DRIVE A hard disk drive (HDD), commonly referred to as a hard drive or hard disk, is a non-volatile storage device which stores digitally encoded data on rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surfaces. Strictly speaking, â€Å"drive† refers to a device distinct from its medium, such as a tape drive and its tape, or a floppy disk drive and its floppy disk.Early HDDs had removable media; however, an HDD today is typically a sealed unit with fixed media. Figure 3. 8 showing a Hard disk and its components. A hard disk drive stores information on one or more rigid, flat, disks. The disks are mounted on a spindle, with spacers in between, and a motor on the bottom end of the spindle. To read and write to the surface of the disks, the drive uses a small electro-magnet assembly, referred to as a head, located on the end of an actuator arm. There is one head for each platter surface on the spindle. The disks are spun at a very high speed to allow the head to move quickly over the surface of the disk.Towards the other end of the actuator arm is a pivot point, and at the end is a voice coil, which moves the head. Above and below each voice coil is a rare earth magnet. This allows the head to move towards the center of the disk or towards the outside, in a radial pattern. Fig 3. 9 Describing inside the HDD 3. 5 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE OF THE HARD DISK DRIVE The preventive measures are used to improve the performance of the hard disk. The primary tools or utilities available are: Scandisk: This utility can be used to scan surface for media errors, scan files and folde rs for data problem.Scan disk is run each time window is not properly shot down. You should run scan disk at least weekly to find and repair small error on disk before they become major problem. Disk Defragmentation: This utility is use to rearrange your disk files, combined and organized unused disk space so that application run faster. As we modify or delete file on hard disk, file become fragmented. The defragmenter eliminates fragmentation so that data in the file are readily available to program asking for it. Disk Cleanup/delete Unused File: This utility remove unnecessary file from your hard disk.This tool scan the disk you designate to fine files that can be removed without affecting the operation of the PC and the Window operating system. Backup: Backing up hard disk data to another storage media that can be stored outside the PC is also a preventive maintenance. This usually prevent hard disk against failure, PC problem hardware can be replaced but most often data cannot b e recovered, so making a backup copy of your file is a safety precaution that ensure that your data can be outlive on the device on which it is stored.Empty Recycle Bin: The recycle bin should always be emptied at least monthly in order to remove all deleted data, file, programs that are no longer needed. 3. 6 FLOPPY DISK DRIVES Floppy disks, also known as floppies or diskettes (where the suffix -ette means little one) were ubiquitous in the 1980s and 1990s, being used on home and personal computer (â€Å"PC†) platforms such as the Apple II, Macintosh, Commodore 64, Atari ST, Amiga, and IBM PC to distribute software, transfer data between computers, and create small backups.Before the popularization of the hard drive for PCs, floppy disks were typically used to store a computer's operating system (OS), application software, and other data. Many home computers had their primary OS kernels stored permanently in on-board ROM chips, but stored the disk operating system on a flopp y, whether it be a proprietary system, CP/M, or, later, DOS. Since the floppy drive was the primary means of storing programs, it was typically designated as the ‘A:' drive. The second floppy drive was the ‘B:' drive.And those with the luxury of a hard drive were designated the ‘C:' drive, a convention that remains with us today long after the decline of the floppy disk's utility. Fig 3. 10 CD-ROM DRIVES Figure3. 10 showing Old 4x CD-ROM DRIVE CD-ROM discs are read using CD-ROM drives, which are now almost universal on personal computers. A CD-ROM drive may be connected to the computer via an IDE (ATA), SCSI, SATA, Fire wire, or USB interface or a proprietary interface, such as the Panasonic CD interface.Virtually all modern CD-ROM drives can also play audio CDs as well as Video CDs and other data standards when used in conjunction with the right software. 3. 7 INSTALLING THE HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM Things to get in place before starting: Set of sc rewdrivers and pliers, Piece of cloth, CPU Thermal compound (recommended), PC components. Make sure you have all the components in place and a nice, clean and big enough place to work with. Fig 3. 11 All PC components accept the case Tip: CPU Thermal compound is not a necessity but it is recommended to keep your CPU cool under load conditions by helping heat dissipate faster.It is a must if you intend to over clock your PC. Installing the motherboard Fig 3. 12. Open the side doors of the cabinet Lay the cabinet on its side Put the motherboard in place Drive in all the required screws Most motherboards come with an antistatic bag. It is advisable to put the motherboard on it for some time and then remove it from the antistatic bag before placing it in the cabinet. Fig 3. 13 Step 1 Installing the CPU CPU is the heart of a computer so make sure you handle it properly and do not drop it or mishandle it. Steps 1 * Lift the CPU lever on the motherboard Place the CPU properly on the mother board * Pull down the lever to secure the CPU in place Warning: Do not try to push the CPU into the motherboard! Step 2 Got the thermal compound? Now is the time to use it. Take small amount of it and carefully apply it on the top surface of the processor. Be careful not to put it on the neighboring parts of the motherboard. If you do so clean it immediately using the cloth. Tip: Thermal compounds should be changed once every six months for optimal performance. Step 3 installing the heat sink Fig 3. 15 After installing the processor we proceed to installing the heat sink.There are different kinds of heat sinks that are bundled with the processor and each has a different way of installation. Look into your CPU manual for instructions on how to install it properly. Place the heat sink on the processor Put the jacks in place Secure the heat sink with the lever After this you will need to connect the cable of the heat sink on the motherboard. Again look into the motherboard manual on wh ere to connect it and then connect it to the right port to get your heat sink in operational mode. Installing the RAM Fig 3. 16 Installing the RAM is also an easy job.The newer RAMs that is DDR RAMs are easy to install as you don’t have to worry about placing which side where into the slot. The older ones, SDRAMs are plagued by this problem. Push down the RAM into the slot Make sure the both the clips hold the RAM properly Installing the power supply Fig 3. 17 Installing the power supply as the components we install after this will require power cables to be connected to them. There is not much to be done to install a PSU. Place the PSU into the cabinet Put the screws in place tightly Tip: Some PSU have extra accessories that come bundled with it. Consult your PSU manual to see how to install them.Step 6: Installing the video card Fig 3. 18 First you will need to find out whether your video card is AGP or PCI-E. AGP graphics cards have become redundant and are being phased ou t of the market quickly. So if you bought a spanking new card it will certainly be a PCI-E. * Remove the back plate on the cabinet corresponding to the graphics card * Push the card into the slot * Secure the card with a screw * Plug in the power connection from PSU (if required) High-end graphics cards need dedicated power supply and if your graphics card needs one then connect the appropriate wire from PSU into the graphics card.Step 7: Installing the hard disk Fig 3. 19 Hard disk is another fragile component of the computer and needs to be handled carefully. Place the hard drive into the bay Secure the drive with screws If the jumpers or switches are set for the only hard drive or master role, move on. If the jumpers or switches are not configured correctly, move them to the correct position with your needle-nose pliers or your tweezers. Connect the power cable from PSU Connect the data cable from motherboard into the drive If your hard drive is a SATA one then connect one end of SATA cable into the motherboard and other into the SATA port on the hard disk.If your hard disk is PATA type then use the IDE cable instead of the SATA cable. Tip: If your PSU does not support SATA power supply then you will need to get a converter which will convert your standard IDE power connector to a SATA power connector. Fig 3. 20 Testing the Hard disk installation Verify that a monitor, keyboard, and mouse are connected to the PC. Make sure the power cord is connected and that the computer is receiving power. Power up the unit and watch the boot. Step 9: Connecting various cables Fig 3. 21 First we will finish setting up internal components and then get on to the external ones.You will need to consult your motherboard manual for finding the appropriate port for connecting various cables at the right places on the motherboard. Connect the large ATX power connector to the power supply port on your motherboard. Next get hold of the smaller square power connector which supplies power to the processor and connect it to the appropriate port by taking help from your motherboard manual. Connect the cabinet cables for power, reset button in the appropriate port of the motherboard. Connect the front USB/audio panel cable in the motherboard Plug the cable of cabinet fansYou are done with installing the internal components of the PC. Close the side doors of the cabinet and get it upright and place it on your computer table. Get the rest of the PC components like monitor, keyboard, mouse, speakers etc. which we will connect now. Connect the VGA cable of the monitor into the VGA port If mouse/keyboard is PS/2 then connect them to PS/2 ports or else use the USB port Connect the speaker cable in the audio port Fig 3. 22 Plug in the power cable from PSU into the UPS Also plug in the power cable of the monitor You are now done with setting up your PC.Power on and see your PC boot to glory. Step 10: Installing Operating System Here are some useful steps enter your BIOS s ettings instruct the computer to boot from the CD –ROM, insert a bootable disk fold your arms and watch your PC boot to Glory. CHAPTER FOUR 4. 1 NETWORKING AND NETWORK CABLES Knowledge gained on Networking Network is a group of connected computers. This can be as small and simple as two (2) computers connected together or as large and complex as a multisite network that supports thousands of computers and printers and other device.Networking allows for increased communication (video conferencing, real-time chats, e-mailing etc), hardware and software resources sharing (printers, drives, data, files application etc) and Data back up and retrieval. Network models can be any of peer-to-peer or client/server model. Types of network include LAN (Local Area Network), WAN (Wide area network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), Virtual LAN, Virtual Private Network, (VPN). 4. 2 NETWORK DEVELOPMENT COMPONENTS Components used to develop a network can be classified broadly into 2 that is H ardware and software The Hardware components include * Computers Modems * Interfaces * Peripherals * Networking cards * Cabling – UTP, STP, Fiber Optics, coaxial * Interconnecting devices, e. g. repeaters routers, hubs, NIC, switches, bridges The software includes operating system (such as MS Dos, UNIX, protocols and other software tools supporting the data communication across the network. The number of components (software and hardware) depends on a number of factors like, type of Network to be used, number of workstation, hosts, PC terminals other peripheral devices to be connected to the Network, data volume, speed of transmission, application program and services required. . 3 MAIN TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGIES In networking, the term â€Å"topology† refers to the layout of connected devices on a network. This article introduces the standard topologies of computer networking. One can think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical layout of the devices on the network. For example, the computers on a home LAN may be arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be highly unlikely to find an actual ring topology there. Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types: * Star Topology Ring Topology * Bus Topology * Tree Topology * Mesh Topology * Hybrid Topology More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic topologies. Star Topology: Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point called a â€Å"hub† that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet. Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails. ) See the illustration of Star Network Topology. Fig 4. 1 Advantages of a Star Topology * Easy to install and wire. * No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices. * Easy to detect faults and to remove parts. Disadvantages of A Star Topology * Requires more cable length than a linear topology. * If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled. * More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators. The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or Local Talk.Token Ring uses a similar topology, called the star-wired ring. Star-Wired Ring: A star-wired ring topology may appear (externally) to be the same as a star topology. Internally, the MAU of a star-wired ring contains wiring that allows information to pass from one device to another in a circle or ring. The Token Ring protocol uses a star-wired ring topology. Ring Topology: In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communicatio n purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either â€Å"clockwise† or â€Å"counterclockwise†).A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network. To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses. See the illustration of Ring Topology. Fig 4. 2 Bus Topology: Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector.A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message. Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared to the alternatives. 10Base-2 (â€Å"Thin Net†) and 10Base-5 (â€Å"Thick Net†) both were popular Ethernet cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance problems will likely result.In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable. See the illustration of Bus Network Topology. Fig 4. 3 Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology * Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus. * Requires less cable length than a star topology. Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology * Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable. * Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable. * Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down. * Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.Tree Topology: Tree topologies integrate multiple star to pologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus and each hub functions as the â€Å"root† of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone. See the illustration of Tree Network Topology. Fig 4. 4 Advantages of a Tree Topology Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.Supported by several hardware and software vendors. Disadvantages of a Tree Topology Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down. More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies. Mesh Topology: Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths fro m source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction. Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing. A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others. See the illustration of Mesh Network Topology. Fig 4. 5 Hybrid Topology A combination of any two or more network topologies. Note 1: Instances can occur where two basic network topologies, when connected together, can still retain the basic network character, and therefore not be a hybrid network.For example, a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree network. Therefore, a hybrid network accrues only when two basic networks are connected and the resulting network topology fails to meet one of the basic topology definitions. For example, two star networks connected together exh ibit hybrid network topologies. Note 2: A hybrid topology always accrues when two different basic network topologies are connected. 4. 4 Network Adapters There are many different names for network adapters, including network cards, Network Interface Cards, NICs. These are all generic terms for the same piece of hardware.A network card’s job is to physically attach a computer to a network, so that the computer can participate in network communications. The first thing that you need to know about network cards is that the network card has to match the network medium. The network medium refers to the type of cabling that is being used on the network. Wireless networks are a science all their own, and I will talk about them in a separate article. At one time making sure that a network card matched the network medium was a really big deal, because there were a large number of competing standards in existence.For example, before you built a network and started buying network cards and cabling, you had to decide if you were going to use Ethernet, coaxal Ethernet, Token Ring, Arcnet, or one of the other networking standards of the time. Each networking technology had its strengths and weaknesses, and it was important to figure out which one was the most appropriate for your organization. Today, most of the networking technologies that I mentioned above are quickly becoming extinct. Pretty much the only type of wired network used by small and medium sized businesses is Ethernet. This is what an Ethernet card looks likeFig 4. 6 4. 5 UTP CABLE TYPES UTP cabling, terminated with RJ-45 connectors, is a common copper-based medium for interconnecting network devices, such as computers, with intermediate devices, such as routers and network switches. Different situations may require UTP cables to be wired according to different wiring conventions. This means that the individual wires in the cable have to be connected in different orders to different sets of pins in the RJ-45 connectors. The following are main cable types that are obtained by using specific wiring conventions: * Ethernet Straight-through Ethernet Crossover * Rollover Using a crossover or straight-through cable incorrectly between devices may not damage the devices, but connectivity and communication between the devices will not take place. This is a common error in the lab and checking that the device connections are correct should be the first troubleshooting action if connectivity is not achieved. Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling, as it is used in Ethernet LANs, consists of four pairs of color-coded wires that have been twisted together and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath.The twisting has the effect of canceling unwanted signals. When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, external electromagnetic fields create the same interference in each wire. The pairs are twisted to keep the wires in as close proximity as is physically possible. When th is common interference is present on the wires in a twisted pair, the receiver processes it in equal yet opposite ways. As a result, the signals caused by electromagnetic interference from external sources are effectively cancelled. 4. 6UTP CABLING STANDARDSThe UTP cabling commonly found in workplaces, schools, and homes conforms to the standards established jointly by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and the Electronics Industries Alliance (EIA). TIA/EIA-568A stipulates the commercial cabling standards for LAN installations and is the standard most commonly used in LAN cabling environments. Some of the elements defined are: * Cable types * Cable lengths * Connectors * Cable termination * Methods of testing cable There three (3) types of unshielded twisted pair Ethernet cables and they are: Ethernet Straight- throughEthernet Crossover Rollover The figure below shows the color combinations for producing these cables Fig 4. 7 CABLE TYPE| STANDARD| APPLICATION| Etherne t straight- through| Both end T568A or both end T568B| Connecting a network host to a network device such as a switch or hub. Connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem's LAN portConnect a router's WAN port to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port. Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's uplink port. (normally used for expanding network)Connect two (2) switches/hubs with one of the switch/hub using an uplink port and the other one using normal port. Ethernet crossover| One end T568A, And the other end T568B. | Connecting two network hosts. Connecting network intermediary devices such as (switch- to- router) or (router-to-router)Connect 2 switches/hubs by using normal port in both switches/hubs. | Rollover| Cisco proprietary| Connect a workstation serial port to a router console port, using an adapter. | Making Ethernet UTP cables WHAT YOU NEED Fig 4. 8 Cable- Be sure the cable(s) you are using is properly rated for CAT 5. It should state clearly on the jacket of the cable, what it is rate d at.One option that you have when selecting your cable is to use a pre-made normal ‘straight through' cable, and simply whack off one of the ends, and replace with a new â€Å"Crossed Over† end. For the purpose of this report, though, we aren't going to go that route. We are going to make the whole thing from scratch – using bulk CAT 5 cable. Connectors – Crossover cables are terminated with CAT 5 RJ-45 (RJ stands for â€Å"Registered Jack†) modular plugs. RJ-45 plugs are similar to those you'll see on the end of your telephone cable except they have eight versus four contacts on the end of the plug.Also, make sure the ends you select are rated for CAT 5 wiring. There are also different types of jacks which are used for different types of cabling (such as Solid Core wire). Make sure you buy the correct jacks for your cabling. Crimper – You will need a modular crimping tool. Fig 4. 9 Stripper – There are several specialized tools, whic h can be used to strip the jackets off of cabling. If you do not have access to one of these tools, cautious use of a razor blade or knife should work just fine – but keep in mind if you go the razor blade / knife route, extra special care must be used as to not damage the wires inside the jacket.Cutters – You need a pair of cutters that will allow you to cut a group of cables in a straight line. It is very important that all the wires are the same lengths, and without proper cutters, this can be a difficult task. Fig 4. 10 LAN Tester – You need the LAN tester to test the cable after crimping to ensure the functionality of the cable. Connect the cable to the tester and see if all lights turn green. If all lights turn green, your cable is working properly. If they do not, cut the RJ-45 connector off and re-terminate the ends of the cable with a new one.Fig 4. 11 1. Start by stripping off about 2 inches of the plastic jacket off the end of the cable. Be very caref ul at this point, as to not nick or cut into the wires, which are inside. Doing so could alter the characteristics of your cable, or even worse render it useless. Check the wires, one more time for nicks or cuts. If there are any, just whack the whole end off, and start over. Fig 4. 12 2)Spread the wires apart, but be sure to hold onto the base of the jacket with your other hand. You do not want the wires to become untwisted down inside the jacket.Category 5 cable must only have 1/2 of an inch of ‘untwisted' wire at the end; otherwise it will be ‘out of specification' Fig4. 13 Up to this point, things have been pretty easy. Things will get a little bit tricky here, but don't worry; we'll get through this together. We are at a point in this report where a decision needs to be made. You need to decide which end of the cable you are making at this point in time. If you are making your cable from scratch like I am doing while writing this report, you have 2 end jacks, which must be installed on your cable.If you are using a pre-made cable, with one of the ends whacked off, you only have one end to install – the crossed over end. Below are two diagrams, which show how you need to arrange the cables for each type of cable end. Decide at this point which end you are making and examine the associated picture below. Fig4. 14 Begin to untwist the twisted exposed wires on your cable. Use caution so that you do not untwist them down inside the jacket. Once you have all the wires untwisted begin to arrange them in the proper order based on the pictures above.This stage can be a frustrating one, especially some of the middle wires. Once you get all the wired arranged in the proper order, make sure your wire cutters are within reach then grasp them right at the point where they enter the jacket. Make sure you keep them in the proper order! Grab your cutters now. Line them up along your prepared wires about 1/2 inches above the jacket. Be sure at this point that you are both 1/2 inches above the jacket, and that your cutters are aligned straight across the wires. You want to make a clean cut here – also make sure you don't let go of that jacket / wires!Fig4. 15 5. Grab those crimpers – because not all crimpers are exactly the same your pictures may not match exactly what you see below. Be sure to keep a good grip on that jack and the cable. Insert the jack into the crimper. It should only go in one way, so you don't have a whole lot to worry about inserting it. Begin to compress those crimpers. You will more than likely hear a clicking sound. Keep squeezing. If you try to let go too early, nothing will happen. They will not release. Keep going until they stop clicking / stop moving all together.At this point, you should be able to let go of the jack, and the crimpers. The crimpers should release now leaving you with a crimped jack. If the crimpers do not release, you probably didn’t press hard enough. Fig4. 16 6)I t's time to examine what we have done. If you look at the end of the jack you should see that the copper connectors should not be pressed down into the wires. Toward the back of the jack (where the jacket meets the jack) it should be crimped securely holding the jacket / cable in the jack. If something has gone wrong, don't worry, it’s not the end of the world.Grab those cutters, and just whack the whole jack off and start back at step 1 (a frustrating one I know, but it’s better to have a cable that works, than to spend hours trouble shooting your PC trying to figure out why you can't see the other machine). If everything is cool, all you have to do now is make the other end of the cable so go back to step one, and make the other end as I have explained in this report. Fig 4. 17 Good |   |   | Fig4. 18|   | WRONG WAY – Note how the blue plastic shielding is not inside the connector where it can be locked into place. |   |   |   | Fig4. 9|   | WRON G WAY – Note how the cables do not go all the way to the end of the connector. | 4. 7 CONNECTING TWO COMPUTERS USING CROSSOVER CABLES Fig 4. 20 Plug in network card each to computer and then install network card driver for each computer. Connect the cable to both computers’ network card. Here comes the network configuration, let’s create a simple network by assigning following network info to each computer's network card: Computer A: IP Address: 10. 1. 1. 1 Subnet mask: 255. 255. 255. 0 Gateway: DNS Servers: Computer B: IP Address: 10. 1. 1. 2 Subnet mask: 255. 255. 255. 0 Gateway: DNS Servers:Since these 2 computers are directly connected, no gateway and DNS servers are needed. After assigning IP address, try to ping the other computer from command prompt, you should be able to ping each other and then sharing printers or files as you wish. 4. 8 USING PING TO TROUBLESHOOT NETWORK PROBLEM Sometimes if your network connection is down, you can use ping to troubles hoot network problem and then fix it. Ping is a program used to check whether a host is up and active in network. It’s very simple and usually used to troubleshoot network problem. Here is typical technique for pinging and it applies to wireless network as well. . First thing you need to do is to make sure there is light on network card with cable connected. Sometimes network down is due to disconnected network cable or loose cable connection. If you notice no light on your network card after connecting with network cable, make sure the network cable is working. If you see the light, then proceed to step 2. 2. Go to Start and click on Run. Type CMD, and hit Enter or click OK. Fig 4. 21 Type â€Å"ping† in the Command Window. Hit the space bar once. Type the IP or website address that you want to ping. For example, if you want to ping eBay, type â€Å"www. ebay. om† after the space. Hit â€Å"Enter. † If the website is up and actively responding, you recei ve replies back from the server that you pinged with the following information: The IP address The number of Bytes sent The time it took in milliseconds The TTL is Time to Live (This indicated the number of â€Å"hops† back from the computer pinged from that computers initial TTL value. ) Fig4. 22 4. 9HUBS AND SWITCHES As you can see, computers use network cards to send and receive data. The data is transmitted over Ethernet cables. However, you normally can’t just run an Ethernet cable between two PCs and call it a network.In this day and age of high speed Internet access being almost universally available, you tend to hear the term broadband thrown around a lot. Broadband is a type of network in which data is sent and received across the same wire. In contrast, Ethernet uses Baseband communications. Baseband uses separate wires for sending and receiving data. What this means is that if one PC is sending data across a particular wire within the Ethernet cable, then th e PC that is receiving the data needs to have the wire redirected to its receiving port. You can actually network two PCs together in this way.You can create what is known as a cross over cable. A cross over cable is simply a network cable that has the sending and receiving wires reversed at one end, so that two PCs can be linked directly together. The problem with using a cross over cable to build a network is that the network will be limited to using no more and no less than two PCs. Rather than using a cross over cable, most networks use normal Ethernet cables that do not have the sending and receiving wires reversed at one end. Of course the sending and receiving wires have to be reversed at some point in order for ommunications to succeed. This is the job of a hub or a switch. Hubs are starting to become extinct, but I want to talk about them anyway because it will make it easier to explain switches later on. There are different types of hubs, but generally speaking a hub is no thing more than a box with a bunch of RJ-45 ports. Each computer on a network would be connected to a hub via an Ethernet cable. You can see a picture of a hub, shown in Figure C. Fig 4. 23 A hub is a device that acts as a central connection point for computers on a network A hub has two different jobs.Its first job is to provide a central point of connection for all of the computers on the network. Every computer plugs into the hub (multiple hubs can be daisy chained together if necessary in order to accommodate more computers). The hub’s other job is to arrange the ports in such a way so that if a PC transmits data, the data is sent over the other computer’s receive wires. Right now you might be wondering how data gets to the correct destination if more than two PCs are connected to a hub. The secret lies in the network card. Each Ethernet card is programmed at the factory with a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address.When a computer on an Ethernet network transmi ts data across an Ethernet network containing PCs connected to a hub, the data is actually sent to every computer on the network. As each computer receives the data, it compares the destination address to its own MAC address. If the addresses match then the computer knows that it is the intended recipient, otherwise it ignores the data. As you can see, when computers are connected via a hub, every packet gets sent to every computer on the network. The problem is that any computer can send a transmission at any given time.Have you ever been on a conference call and accidentally started to talk at the same time as someone else? This is the same thing that happens on this type of network. When a PC needs to transmit data, it checks to make sure that no other computers are sending data at the moment. If the line is clear, it transmits the necessary data. If another computer tries to communicate at the same time though, then the packets of data that are traveling across the wire collide and are destroyed (this is why this type of network is sometimes referred to as a collision domain). Both PCs then have to wait for a random mount of time and attempt to retransmit the packet that was destroyed. As the number of PCs on a collision domain increases, so does the number of collisions. As the number of collisions increase, network efficiency is decreased. This is why switches have almost completely replaced hubs. A switch, such as the one shown in Figure D, performs all of the same basic tasks as a hub. The difference is that when a PC on the network needs to communicate with another PC, the switch uses a set of internal logic circuits to establish a dedicated, logical path between the two PCs.What this means is that the two PCs are free to communicate with each other, without having to worry about collisions. Fig4. 24 A switch looks a lot like a hub, but performs very differently Switches greatly improve a network’s efficiency. Yes, they eliminate collisions, bu t there is more to it than that. Because of the way that switches work, they can establish parallel communications paths. For example, just because computer A is communicating with computer B, there is no reason why computer C can’t simultaneously communicate with computer D.In a collision domain, these types of parallel communications would be impossible because they would result in collisions. 4. 10 PLANNING AND CABLING NETWORKS. When planning the installation of LAN cabling, there are four physical areas to consider: Work area Telecommunications room, also known as the distribution facility Backbone cabling, also known as vertical cabling Distribution cabling, also known as horizontal cabling Total Cable Length For UTP installations, the ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B standard specifies that the total combined length of cable spanning the four areas listed above is limited to a maximum distance of 100 meters per